Should and Ought to

 We use “Should” to give advice or to talk about what is right to do.

Should + base form verb

 Use should not / Shouldn’t for the negative. 

You should wear a sweater.

They should bring their notebooks tomorrow.

Sara shouldn’t take those books.

James shouldn’t leave without an umbrella.

We can use “should” to talk about the present or the future.

The secretary should type the report right now.

The manager should present the report on Monday.

They should take off their sweaters.

We should leave before the party ends.

“Ought to” means the same as “should”.

You should try this pie.

You ought to try this pie.

“Ought to” is not usually used in questions or negatives, we use “should” instead.

Should I wear a sweater?

Ought I to wear a sweater? (incorrect)

If you want to sound more polite, use “I think…” or “Maybe …” before you say “you should …” or “you ought to …”

I think you should see a doctor.

Maybe you ought to take a break.

I think you ought to arrive on time.

Maybe you should have something to eat.

Use “had better” to give advice. “Had better” is stronger than should. It implies that something bad might happen if you don’t follow the advice.

Had better + base form verb

James had better send those emails.

Rose had better make an appointment. 

The negative form of “had better” is “had better not”. The contracted for of “had better” –

 “‘d better” is more common in spoken language.

Steve had better not forget his passport.

He’d better not forget his passport.

Had better is used to talk about the present and the future.

The manager had better present the report on Monday.

You’d better take off your sweater.

We’d better leave before the party ends.

Be careful “had” in “had better” does not refer to the past tense.

You’d better not miss your flight tomorrow.

 

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

We mainly use the present progressive or present continuous to talk about events that are taking place at the time of speaking so we can infer that the action is not finished yet.

         The structure of the present progressive or present progressive is as follows:

subject/pronoun + be + verb-ing + complement 

                                                               am, is are

The kids are playing in the park.

Joe and his friends are watching a movie in the living room.

Maria is making a chocolate cake.

We also use the present continuous or present progressive to talk about temporary events or situations.

Steve teaches History at school on weekends. (simple present)

This weekend he is  teaching English. (Present continuous)

I usually work in my office in the morning. (simple present)

This week I am working at home. (present continuous)

We can use the adverbs "always, forever, and constantly" to emphaze a series of repeated events or actions.

My parents are always arguing.

The new secretary is constantly leaving the office early in the afternoon.

Rules that we have to consider when we add "ing" to verbs in the present contonuous or presengt progressive.

A. All verbs will add "ing" when used in the present progressive or present continuous.

Walk  -  Walking

Run  -  Running

Swim  -  Swimming

Paint  -  Painting 

B. Verbs ending in a silent "e" will drop it out and will add "ing".

Dance  -  Dancing

Write  -  Writing

Arrive  -  Arriving

Chase  -  Chasing

C. One syllable verbs that end in a consonant - vowel - consonant will duplicate their last consonant and will add "ing"

Get  -  Getting

Stop  -  Stopping

Run  -  Running

Spin  -  Spinning

D. A small group of verbs will not add "ing" becaue of their meaning, we call them stative verbs. feel, agree, love, like, adore, belong, believe, prefer, see, taste, doubt, sound, need, think, appreciate, cost.

The manager is not agreeing with us. (incorrect!)

The manager does not agree with us. 

She is believing our story. (incorrect!)

She believes our story. 

The food is smelling delicious.

The food smells delicious.

the secretary is needing a new computer. (incorretct!)

The secretary needs a new computer.

PLURAL NOUNS

Most nouns including those ending in a silent "e" will be cjanged to their pplural form by adding "s".

Book      -   Books

Brake     -   Brakes

Pencil     -   Pencils

Person    -  Persons

Actor       -   Actors

Runner   -   Runners

Nouns ending in "ch", "tch", "sh", "x", "z", "zz", "s", "ss", are made plural by adding "es"

Gas  -  Gases

Box  -  Boxes

Buzz  -  Buzzes

Lunch  -  Lunches

Watch  -  Watches  

Kiss  -  Kisses

Nouns ending in "y" precedeed by a consonant are made plural by changing the "y" for an "i" and adding "es".

Baby  -  Babies

City  -  Cities

Story  -  Stories

Democracy  -  Democracies

Proper nouns ending in a final "y" are made plural by adding "s"

Kennedy  -  Kennedys

Zeivy  -  Zeivys

Levy  -  Levys

Bromley  -  Bromleys

When  a "y" is preceded by a vowel (ay, ey, oy, uy)

Day  -  Days

Key  -  Keys

Guy  -  Guys

Boy  -  Boys 

Some nouns ending in "f" or "fe" are made plural by changing the "f" for a "v" and then add "es".

Life  -  Lives

Leaf  -  Leaves

Knife  -  Knives

Wife  -  Wives

Shelf  -  Shelves

Wolf  -  Wolves

Some nouns ending in "f" or "fe" only add "s".

Gulf  -  Gulfs

Safe  -  Safes

Roof  -  Roofs

Chief  - Chiefs

Some Nouns that end in "o" preceded by a consonant are made plural by adding "es". 

Echo  - Echoes

Hero  -  Heroes

Mosquito  -  Mosquitoes

Embargo  -  Embargoes

Other noun ending in "o" proceded by a consonant are made plural by adding "s".

Casino  -  Casinos

Torso  -  Torsos

Dynamo  -  Dynamos

Ego  -  Egos

There is a small group of nouns ending in "o" that are made plural by adding either "s" or "es".

Buffalo  -  Buffalloes  -  Buffalos

Volcano  -  Volcanoes  -  Volcanos

Halo  -  Haloes  -  Halos

Zero  -  Zeroes  -  Zeros

Tornado  -  Tornadoes  -  Tornados

Nouns ending in "o" prceded by a vowel and most muscical instruments ending in "o" are made plural by adding "s".

Folio  -  Folios

Bamboo  -  Bamboos

Radio  -  Radios

Piano  -  Pianos

Sopranos  -  Sopranos

Banjio  -  Banjios

Compound nouns are usually made plural by making the principal noun plural.

Mother-in- law  -  Mothers-in-law

Notebook  -  Notebooks

Horseman  -  Horsemen

Music lesson  -  Music lessons

Compound nouns mad of two nouns of equal importance are made them plural by making both nouns plural.

Woman driver  -  Women drivers

Manservant  -  Menservants

Some nouns do not change forms from singular to plural.

Deer  -  Deer

Sheep  -  Sheep

Fish  -  Fish

Chinese  -  Chinese

Series  -  Series

Forceps  -  Forceps 

Some nouns are only used in the plural form.

Clothes

Goods

Scissors

Measles

Pants

SOME AND ANY

Some and any are used with plural nouns and uncountable nouns

We use some mainly with affirmative sentences.

We use any with negative sentences and questions.

• I have some yogurt in the refrigerator. (affirmative/uncountable noun)

• I guess we don’t have any yogurt left in the refrigerator. (negative/uncountabe noun)

• We bought some books at the book fair. (affirmatve/countable noun)

• Joan doesn't have any plates for breakfast. (negative/countable plural noun)

• Do we need any cheese for the sandwiches? (question/uncountable noun)

• Does Samantha want any apples for desert? (question/plural noun)

Questions with some and any

In most questions we use "ANY"

• Have you met any famous singers?

• Does George have any Children?

We can use "some" in the following circumstances.

A. When we make an offering.

• Would you like some cake with your coffee?

• Do you want some cookies for desert? 

B. When we ask someone for something.

• Could I have some sugar, please?

• Can you get me some chips for may sandwich, please?

C. When we give suggestions.

• Why don'y you buy some cheese for the sandwiches?
• You should buy some jeans for your trip.

We can use Any and Some without a noun following them if the meaning is clear or stated. 

• We didn't eat any cake at the party, but steve had some. (cake)

• I didn't buy any souvenirs on my trip but my wife bought some. (souvenirs)

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

The simple present tense is used to describe habits, unchanging situations, general truths, and fixed arrangements. 

The simple present structure is as follows:

Subject/Pronoun + verb + Complement.

Look at the following examples:

The students have luch in the cafeteria.

I watch TV in the living room.

You live on hudson Road.

We want a cottage in a town near the lake.

When refering to the third person singular (he, she, it) the verb will add s, es, or ies.

He/She/It + verb s,es, ies + Complment.

Look at the following examples:

*The student has lunch in the cafeteria.

Marianne watches TV in the living room.

My brother likes to play in the park.

John studies History at school on weekends.

The endings s, es, and ies are only used in affirmative sentences and affirmative long answers.

To change a simple present statement to the negative form, to a question form, or to give long complete answers we need to use the auxiliaries Do or Does.

Do is used with the pronouns I, you, they, and we.

Does is used with the pronouns he, she, and it.

Verbs ending in ch, tch, sh, x, z, zz, s, ss, and o will add "es" when used in affirmative sentences and affirmative long answers.

My little sister marches like a soldier.

Susana watches movies on weekends with her brothers.

The teacher quizzes his students every Friday.

My grandmother kisses her grandchildren.

Robert goes to the park everyday.

Verbs ending in a final "y" with a consonant before it will change the "y" to and "i" and will add "es".

The baby cries at night. (cry)

Brenda is studies music at school. (study)

That boy bullies his classmates at school. (bully)

Be careful if your verb ends in a final "y" but with a vowel before it, you will just add "s" to the verb if the subject is he, she, or it.

My sister plays in the backyard everyday. (play)

My dad enjoys swimming in the ocean. (enjoy)

My mom buys her groceries in the supermarket. (buy)

Let's take a look to how Do and Does are used:

The students have lunch in the school's cafeteria

The students don't have lunch in the school's cafeteria.

Do the students have lich in the school's cafeteria?

Yes, the students have lunch in the school's cafeteria.

No, the students don't have lunch in the school's cafeteria.

Yes, they do.           No, they don't.

Notice that do/don't are only used with negative sentences, questions, negative long answers, and short answers.

My brother plays video games in the livingroom.

My broher doesn't play video games in the living room.

Does your brother play video games in the livingroom?

No, my brother doesn't play video games in the livingroom.

Yes, my brother plays video games in the livingroom.

Yes, he does.          No, he doesn't.

Notice that does/doesn't are only used with negative sentences, questions, negative long answers, and short answers.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

We use comparatives to compare one person, thing, action or event or group, with another of the same kind.

Superlative forms are used to compare somebody or something with the whole group it belongs to.

John is taller than his sister. (comparative)

John is the tallest student in his group. (superlative)

Cancun is more expensive than Puerto Vallarta. (comparative)

Mexico city is one of the most exciting cities in Mexico. (superlative)

All comparative and superlative forms are made from adjective forms.

For an adjective to become a comparative it needs to add either the prefix "more" or the suffix "-er".

For the adjective to become a superlative it needs to add the prefix "most" before it or the suffix "est" after it.

Soft    Softer    Softest

Cold    Colder    Coldest

Modern    More modern    Most modern

Expensive    More expensive    Most expensive

Adjectives of one syllable will add "er" in order to change them to the comparative form.

John is younger than Steve.

Yucatan is warmer than Guadalajara.

My cell phone is newer than yours.

Adjectives of one syllable will add "est" in order to change them to the  superlative form.

John is the youngest student in the class.

Mexicali is the warmest city in Mexico.

I want to buy the newest cell phone in the store.

One silable adjecives that end in a consonant-vowel-consonant will duplicate their last consonant and will add "er" to change them to the comparative form and "est" to change them to the superlative form.

Big        Bigger       Biggest

Thin        Thinner        Thinnest

Sad        Sadder      Saddest

Michoacan is a bigger state than Colima. (comparative)

chihuahua is the biggest state in Mexico. (superlative)

Steve is thinner than her sister Joan. (comparative)

Steve is the thinnest in his family. (superlative)

George is fatter than his cousin Bob. (comparative)

George is the fattest man in Monterrey. (superlative)

Two syllable adjectives ending in a final "y" with a consonant before it will change the "y" for an "i" and will add "er" for the comparative and "est" for the superlative forms.

Happy          Happier          Happiest.

Easy          Easier          Easiest.

Lucky          Luckier          Luckiest.

Samantha looks happier than her brother Bob. (comparative)

Marc is the happiest person I have ever met.

Some two syllable adjectives that end in an unstressed syllable /ə/, /l/, /r/ will add "er" or "est" endings when changed to the comparative forms.

Narrow          Narrower         Narrowest

Simple         Simpler          Simplest

Clever          Cleverer         Cleverest

                                                              Quiet            Quieter           Quiestest

Adjectives of two or more syllables will add "more" when used as comparatives and "most" when used as superlatives.

Interesting          more interesting          most interesting

Expensive          more expensive          most expensive

                                               Crowded             more crowded            most crowded

                                               Exciting              more exciting              most exciting

This book is more interesting than the book that I read last month.

This book is the most intersting in the bookstore.

Puerto Vallarta is more expensive than Guayabitos.

Los Cabos is the most expensive beach in Mexico.

If you want to increase the level of difference with a comparative you may use "much".

John is younger than my brother Marc. (John is 20 and Marc is 22)

John is much younger than Steve. (John is 20 and Steve 28)