COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

We use comparatives to compare one person, thing, action or event or group, with another of the same kind.

Superlative forms are used to compare somebody or something with the whole group it belongs to.

John is taller than his sister. (comparative)

John is the tallest student in his group. (superlative)

Cancun is more expensive than Puerto Vallarta. (comparative)

Mexico city is one of the most exciting cities in Mexico. (superlative)

All comparative and superlative forms are made from adjective forms.

For an adjective to become a comparative it needs to add either the prefix "more" or the suffix "-er".

For the adjective to become a superlative it needs to add the prefix "most" before it or the suffix "est" after it.

Soft    Softer    Softest

Cold    Colder    Coldest

Modern    More modern    Most modern

Expensive    More expensive    Most expensive

Adjectives of one syllable will add "er" in order to change them to the comparative form.

John is younger than Steve.

Yucatan is warmer than Guadalajara.

My cell phone is newer than yours.

Adjectives of one syllable will add "est" in order to change them to the  superlative form.

John is the youngest student in the class.

Mexicali is the warmest city in Mexico.

I want to buy the newest cell phone in the store.

One silable adjecives that end in a consonant-vowel-consonant will duplicate their last consonant and will add "er" to change them to the comparative form and "est" to change them to the superlative form.

Big        Bigger       Biggest

Thin        Thinner        Thinnest

Sad        Sadder      Saddest

Michoacan is a bigger state than Colima. (comparative)

chihuahua is the biggest state in Mexico. (superlative)

Steve is thinner than her sister Joan. (comparative)

Steve is the thinnest in his family. (superlative)

George is fatter than his cousin Bob. (comparative)

George is the fattest man in Monterrey. (superlative)

Two syllable adjectives ending in a final "y" with a consonant before it will change the "y" for an "i" and will add "er" for the comparative and "est" for the superlative forms.

Happy          Happier          Happiest.

Easy          Easier          Easiest.

Lucky          Luckier          Luckiest.

Samantha looks happier than her brother Bob. (comparative)

Marc is the happiest person I have ever met.

Some two syllable adjectives that end in an unstressed syllable /ə/, /l/, /r/ will add "er" or "est" endings when changed to the comparative forms.

Narrow          Narrower         Narrowest

Simple         Simpler          Simplest

Clever          Cleverer         Cleverest

                                                              Quiet            Quieter           Quiestest

Adjectives of two or more syllables will add "more" when used as comparatives and "most" when used as superlatives.

Interesting          more interesting          most interesting

Expensive          more expensive          most expensive

                                               Crowded             more crowded            most crowded

                                               Exciting              more exciting              most exciting

This book is more interesting than the book that I read last month.

This book is the most intersting in the bookstore.

Puerto Vallarta is more expensive than Guayabitos.

Los Cabos is the most expensive beach in Mexico.

If you want to increase the level of difference with a comparative you may use "much".

John is younger than my brother Marc. (John is 20 and Marc is 22)

John is much younger than Steve. (John is 20 and Steve 28)

SIMPLE PAST AND PRESENT PERFECT

 

Simple Past

Susan was in high school last year.

I worked for that company for 10 years.

The manager gave a speech at the meeting.

George didn’t travel last summer.

Did my dad call last night?

Present Perfect

James has been a teacher since 2012.

I´ve lived here for 24 years.

We’ve spoken once today

Brian hasn’t traveled anywhere this year.

Has Joan called us today?

• Remember that we use the present perfect to talk about events that started in the past, continue up to the present, and may continue into the future.

• The simple past is used to talk about something that happened and finished in the past and has no connection to the present.

• We also use the present perfect to talk about events that happened at an indefinite time in the past.

• We use the simple past to talk about something that happened at a specific time in the past. Time is mentioned so we know when the event took place.

• We use the present perfect to talk about events that occurred in a time period that has not finished, such as today, this morning, this month, this year, etc.

            Your dad has called you three times today. (Your dad may call you back again today)

• We use the simple past with events that happened in a period of time that is finished, such as yesterday, last week, last month, in December, etc.

            Your dad called you three times yesterday.

• Be careful! expressions such as this morning, this month, or this year can refer to finished or unfinished periods of time. Use simple past if you refer to finished events, and present perfect if you refer to unfinished events.

            My dad has already had three cups of coffee this morning. (the morning hasn't finished yet)

           My dad had three cups of coffee this morning. (it's already 3 pm.)

PAST PERFECT

 

The past perfect is a tense that is used to talk about an event that was completed before another action or event took place in the past. Usually, the simple past tense is used together with the past perfect.

 

Subject / Pronoun + Had + participle verb + Complement.

Marianne had published a book of poems before she graduated from high school.

 The kids had done their homework prior we arrived home.

The past perfect takes us back into the past. Take a look at the following example:

• By the time we arrived home, the kids had already gone to bed, had taken a shower and had done their homework.

In the example above we can see that  the closests event to the present is; "we arrived home", but then the rest of the events take us back to past.

The same example can be written using simple past but this change would give a different meaning to the above example.

• Before we arrived home the kids did their homework, took a shower, and went to bed.

Changing the tense to the past tense also changes the meaning of what is expressed in the above statement. In this example events occur in chronological order, one after another. Still the event of arriving home is the closest event to the present. 

 

PASSIVE VOICE

In order to understand what passive voice is, we have to first understand what active voice is.

In active voice statements we find that a subject performing something, look at the following examples:

 

• The kids play in the backyard.

• Susana is watching tv in the living-room.

• Marc studied music in his hometown.

• The students will take a test next week.

• Mr. Jones has seen that movie three times

In all the examples above we can see that the subject is the one that performs that action of the verb. This can also be done by asking the question “who…?” to the verb. When the someone performs the action of the verb, we say then that our statement is active.

 

• Brenda goes to school by bus. (Who goes to school by bus? Brenda)

In the passive voice the subject does not perform the action of the verb. Look at the following example.

•  The lab is painted two times a year.

If we ask the question “who…” in order to find who performs, the action of the verb we will not find and answer to this question

•  Spanish is spoken at this office. (Who speaks Spanish at tis office? There is no answer)

 

Now let’s take a look at the structure of both the active and the passive voice.

 

Active Voice:

Subject/Pronoun + Auxiliary* + Verb + complement

 

Passive Voice:

Subject/Pronoun +Auxiliary * + be + Participle + complement + agent/doer

*Simple present and simple past have no auxiliary in their affirmative structure. This is very important to remember when we will make the change from active voice to the passive voice.

For a sentence to be changed to the passive voice, its verb needs to perform something. We can call it the action of the verb or the direct object. This can be done by either asking the questions “what or who” to the main verb of the sentence. If any of these two questions can’t be answers then the sentence cannot be change to the passive form.

e.g.:

 

The kids are playing cheerfully in the backyard. (What are the kids playing?)

 

This sentence can’t be changed to the passive because the verb does not perform anything.

The kids are playing baseball cheerfully in the park. (What are the kids playing?)

This sentence can be changed to the passive voice because the verb performs an action (it has an object). 

When we make the change from active to passive the action of the verb will become the subject of the passive voice.

The structure of the sentence has to be kept. This means that no changes in verb tense will be made.

In the example above both sentences are in the present progressive form. 

As you can see all the elements in the active voice are included in the passive voice, the only element that we include is the verb to be. This will take the form of the verb in the active form.

In the example above the verb to be adds -ing because that the form of the main verb in the active form.

Now let take a look at other examples.

Simple Present:

In the above sentence (simple present) we have no auxiliary in the affirmative form. In this sentence the doer can be omitted since it is not necessary. The important fact is that Spanish is studied, not who performs the action.

 

Spanish is studied at a language school .

The same happens for the simple past tense. Look at the following example:

Here you have a list of passive forms of most common structures.

CONDITIONALS

A conditional statement is a sentence that is made up of two clauses or sentences that refer to a condition and the result of this.

We have four conditional sentences:

•  Present Real or Zero conditional – Usually refers to a general truth.

• Future Possible or First Conditional – Usually refers to a future event.

• Present Unreal or Second Conditional – Usually refers to a Hypothetical situation.

• Past unreal or Third Conditional – Usually refers to a Hypothetical outcome.

Remember that conditional statements will always contain two clauses, one called if clause or condition and the other called main clause or result.

The Present Real condition or Zero conditional refers to conditions or situations that are always true or that always take place. We can also refer this as a Universal Truth.

    If + subject / pronoun + verb + complement  +  Subject / Pronoun + Verb + Complement.

                  If clause or Condition                                          Main Clause or Result

 In a Present Real situation  if the if clause or condition takes place the result always happens, take a look at the following example.

• If I wake up late on weekdays, I get late to my office.

• If Susan gets a headache, she takes an aspirin.

• If they arrive late after the party, their parents get mad.

In both parts of the present real situation, statements are written in simple present tense.

The word order in a conditional statement may be reverse but the meaning will be the same. The comma will no be used if you start with the main clause or with the condition.

• I get late to my office if I wake up late on weekdays.

• Susan takes an aspirin if she gets a heatache.

• Thier parents get angry if they arrive late after the party.

In a Future Possible Conditional or First Conditional we are referring to a possible situation or scenario in the future. here if the condition takes place the result is likely to happen.

If + subject / pronoun + verb + complement  +  Subject / Pronoun + Modal + Base form Verb + Complement.

                                                                                                      can, will, may

                 If clause / Condition                                                      Main clause / Result

• If I have money this weekend, I will buy a pair of new shoes. (The use of "will" implies that buying a pair of shoes is likely to happen)

• If we don't tell my parents the truth, they may get angry at us. (The use of "may" implies that the result of telling my parent the truth is likely to happen)

Remember that if want to start with the result we only ommit the comma.

• I will buy a pair of new shoes If I have money this weekend.

• My parents may get angry at us if we tell them the truth.

Present Unreal or Second Conditional.

This conditional refers to hypothetical events in the present or to events that are very difficult to be become real facts in the present. A Present Unreal situation expresses contrary to fact situations, which mean that opposite ideas are expressed.

Subject / Pronoun + Past tense verb + Complement   +   Subject / Pronoun + Modal + Base form Verb + Compl.

                                                                                                                  could, would, might

*If you use the verb to-be in the if clause "were" will be use with all the pronouns. "Was" is possible only in informal English.

• If I had money, I would buy a new pair of shoes. (I have no money so I will not buy a new pair of shoes)

• If Sam lived lived near us, he could come to the party. (Sam lives far away so he can come)

• If Joan spoke Spanish, she might get a better job. (Joan does not speak Spanish so she can't get a better job)

• If I were you, I would accept the job position. (I am not you so I will not accept the job)

• If Susan were here, she might help us. (Susan is not here so she may not help us)

Remember that we can reverse the word order. We can start with the result ant then have the condition or if clause. Only the comma is ommited.

• I would buy a new pair of shoes if I had money.

• Susan might help us if she were here.

• Joan might get a better job if she spoke Spanish.

The Past Unreal or Third Conditional

We use this conditional in order to refer to hypothetical situations in the past. We refer to outcomes that we wish have never taken place but they did take place.

Subj. / Pron. + Had + Participle + Complement  +  Subj. / Pron. + Modal + Have + Participle + Compl.

                                                                                   could, would, might, should

• If I had known you three years ago, I would have married you.

• If George had studied more, he could have passed the test.

• If we hadn't stopped for gas, we might have been involved in the car accident.

• If I had accepted that job offer, I might not have had this economical problems.

*Notice that in all the sentences above we are expressing an opposite idea from what is actually written.

• If George had studied more, he could have passed the test. (he didn't study for the exam. He failed the test)

Present Perfect vs Present Perfect Progressive

 We usually use the Present Perfect to say that something ocured in the past. When we use the present perfect we focus on the result f the action. Remember that time is not mentioned

                        

• Joe has read that book at school. (the event took place at some point of time in the past, the event already finished)

We use the Present Perfect Progressive in order to talk about an action that started in the past and that is still in progress in the present and that might continue up to the future.

 

• Joe has been reading a book since he arrived home. (He began reading it and is still reading and might continue reading it)

We also use the Present Perfect Progressive in order to talk about events that finished in the past but that still have some effect into the present.

• Look! The streets are really wet. It has been raining. In this example rain has stopped recently but still affects on the present.

Remember that non action verbs can not be used with the Present Perfect Progressive. When using any of these verbs use Present Perfect instead.

• I have surprised my family many times. 

• I have been surprising my family many times. (Incorrect)

We also use the Present Perfect Progressive in order to talk about how long something has been going on.

• Greg has been working in the new project for three months.

• Marianne has been taking Spanish classes since she started her career in international business.

If you want to ask about:

• How much someone has done.

• How many things someone has done.

• How many times someone has done something.

We usually use Present Perfect.

• I have had too much coffee this morning.

• Steve has been to Mexico three times.

• We have seen that movie twice this month.

Some times  we can use Present Perfect or Present Perfect Progressive is the meaning is the same. This can happen we we use verbs like: live, study, teach and work.

• Samuel is an experienced teacher. He has been teaching Math for twelve years.

• Samuel is an experienced teacher. He has taught Math for twelve years.

• They have live in the same house for over 15 years.

• They have been living in the same house for over 15 years.

 

When tallking about temporary events we preferably use Present Perfect Progressive.

• Professor Smith has been teaching Math for eight years, but this year he retires.

When talking about permanent events we preferably use Present Perfect.

• Professor Smith has taught at the state college for eight years. He loves teaching.

The Past Progressive

 We use the past progressive in order to talk about the duration of an event in the past, but not in its duration.     

• Steve was having breakfast at 7:30 am (We know that something was going on but we have no idea if the action was finished or not).

If we want t express the idea that an event was completed in the past, we preferably use simple past.

• Steve had breakfast this morning at home. (we know that something started and finished in the past)

Be careful, non action verbs like: like, seem, want, own, believe, prefer, possess, cannot be used with progressive forms. 

Sometimes we will have statements in which an action  will be interrupted by an event in the past. So, the combination of simple past and past progressive is possible.

• Steve was having breakfas when the phone rang. Steve was in the middle of an action when and event occured.

• Whe use "while" when we introduce the action.

• We use "when" when we introduce the event in the past.

Sometimes two actions can take place at the same period of time. "While" will be use to introduce any of the caluses.

 

• Steve was having breakfast while Joan was listening to the news.

• While Steve was having breakfast, Joan was listening to the new.

GERUNDS

 A gerund is a base form verb that adds -ing and functions as a noun. Be careful not to confuse a present participle with a gerund.

• Smoking is not allowed in our premises.

• I can't stand arriving late to an appointment.

• We don't mind helping you this weekend.

If you want to use a negative form just place the word "NOT" before the gerund.

• Not studying for your final exam may not be a good idea.

• The kids are happy about not having classes on Monday.

As we have already mentioned a gerund functions as a noun, so we can use it as the subject of a statement. When working as the subject the gerund will always be singular. So, always use a third person singular form of the verb.

• Eating healthy food is always a good option.

• Drawing is a relaxing activity.

We are going to find a gerund after certain verbs, like: admit, advise, appresiate, avoid, can't stand, consider, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish, keep, like, mind, miss, quit, resist, start, stop, suggest.

When following any of these verbs the gerund functions as the subject of the verb.

• I like reading a good book.

• The kid admitted stealing the woman's purse.

• If you want to recover, avoid eating junk food.

• We are considering moving to a smaller town.

• Susan misses living alone.

The combination of: go + gerung is used to describe activities.

• why don't we go fishing this weekend.

• Have you ever gone shopping on Christmas eve?

We can also find gerund forms after prepositions like: about, against, at, between, by, for, in, to, with, and without.

•  We are talking about hiring a new secretary.

• My dad is against staying at home this summer vacation.

• George used this toll for fixing Brenda's car.

We also find some verbs followed by prepositions, if you have a verb, this must take the gerund form.

e.g.:

• We are asking for getting a raise in our salary.

• Jim complained about working long hours over the weekend.

• My parents are thinking about hiring some more staff for their company.

• Joan succeeded in earning a scholarship.

We also find prepositions with some adjectives: good at, angry about, worried about, afraid of, proud of, interested in.

• Mr. Jones is afraid of losing his job.

• All of us are excited about traveling around Europe next year.

• Susan is interested in learning a foreign language.

Be careful with the following expression ending in "to", they are alway followed by a gerund. look forward to, be opposed to, object to.

• The kids are looking forward to traveling to the mountains.

• The manager opposed to hiring a new secretary.

PRESENT PERFECT

The present perfect refers to an action that either occuered at indefinite time in the past or to an event that occured in the past and is linked to the present.

Take a look at the following examples:

• Ms. Smith has seen that movie. (At some point in the past she saw the movie)

• I have been here for almost two hours. (I arrived here almost two hours ago, and I am still here)

The structure for the present perfect is as follows:

        Subject/pronoun + have / has + Participle verb + Complement

        I, you, they, we + have + Participle + Complement

        He, she, it         + has   + Particple  + Complement

• You have gone to the park twice this week.   

• Joan and George have bought some nice clothes. / They have bought some nice clothes.

• My wife and I have lived in this house for three years. / We have lived in this house for three years.

• Jim has approved his final exam.

• My sister has not finished her homework yet.

We use the the present perfect to show that the result of an event in the past is important to the present. The present perfect has some connection to the present. 

• The player has broken his leg.

• The kids have broken the window.

We use the present perfect with some adverbs to talk about indefinite events in the past.

• Greg has read that book many times.

• My grandparents have traveled to many countries. 

The adverbs twice and often are used to talk about repeated events that occured at an indefinite time in the past. Look at the following examples:

• I have been to Guanajuato twice this year.

• Susana has often had breakfast in the restaurant around the corner. 

In the case of the adverbs always and never, we use them in order to state that something continues up to the present.

e.g.:

• Steve has always wanted to have chihuahua dog.

• I've never ridden a horse.

We use the word ever to ask questions that mean "at any time before now". For negative answer we use the word "never".

e.g.:

• Have you ever seen a ghost?

• No, I've never seen a ghost in my life.

We use the adverbs "just", "lately" and "recently" to stress the idea that something in a very recent past time. Remember that still time is not definite.

Just expresses the idea that something happened in a very short time before now.

Lately and recently express the idea that something happened in the near past.

• I've just finished my homework.

• Greg hasn't been to the amusement park lately.

• Joan has recently remodeled her aparment.